Chapter 21
NARRATE a Story
Look for places in your writing where you can tell a story. Set the scene and then introduce a complication. Discuss how you or others evaluated and resolved the complication. Then tell readers the main point of the story.
DESCRIBE People, Places, or Objects
Consider your subject from your five senses: sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste. Pay attention to movement and features that make your subject unique or interesting.
DEFINE Your Words or Concepts
Look for important words or concepts that need to be defined. A sentence definition should have three parts: the term, the category, and distinguishing characteristics. To extend the definition, describe the word’s history, offer examples of its usage, use negation to show what it isn’t, divide the subject into two or more parts, or discuss its similarities and differences with other things.
CLASSIFY Items by Dividing Them into Groups
If you are discussing something large or complex, list all its parts. Then use a principle of classification to sort that list into two to five major groups. Each group can be divided further into minor groups.
USE CAUSE AND EFFECT To Explain What Causes What
Examine your subject in terms of causes and effects. When analyzing a problem, explain what has changed to cause it. When pitching a solution, describe how your plan will lead to good results.
COMPARE AND CONTRAST Things
Find something that is similar to your subject. List all the similarities between the two items. Then list all the differences. Describe their similarities and differences.
Chapter 22
DEVELOP an “Arguable Claim”
An arguable claim is a statement that exists between personal judgments and proven facts. It should also be a claim that others would be willing to dispute.
IDENTIFY the Source of Your Arguable Claim
Arguable claims tend to emerge from four types of issues: issues of definition, causation, evaluation, and recommendation. You can sharpen your claim by figuring out what kind of issue you are arguing about.
FIND Reason-Based Evidence to Back Up Your Claims
Reasoning (logos) consists of using logical statements and examples to support your arguments.
LOCATE Authoritative Evidence to Back Up Your Claims
You can use your own experience if you are an expert, or you can draw quotes from other experts who agree with you. You should also build up your authority (ethos) by demonstrating your practicality, ethical principles, and goodwill toward readers.
USE Emotional Evidence to Back Up Your Claims
Identify any emotions (pathos) that shape how your readers will be influenced by your argument. You can use promise of gain, promise of enjoyment, fear of loss, fear of pain, and expressions of anger and disgust to influence them.
COUNTER the Claims of the Opposing View
There are a variety of ways to counter or weaken the opposing argument through rebuttal and refutation including (a) summarizing the position objectively, (b) identifying limited situations in which the opposing position may be valid, (c) conceding your opponents’ minor points, (d) refuting or absorbing your opponents’ major points, and (e) qualifying your claims.
AVOID Logical Fallacies
Look for logical fallacies in your argument and locate them in the opposing position’s arguments. A logical fallacy is a weak spot that should be addressed in your own work and can be exploited as you counter the opposing sides’ arguments.
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